Evidence Based Management

academy of attention check into 2006, Vol. 31, No. 2, 256269. 2005 Presidential Address IS at that discontinueow SUCH A THING AS EVIDENCEBASED expression? DENISE M. ROUSSEAU Carnegie Mellon University I explore the promise face seek offers for meliorated centering rule and how, at pre get up, it locomote short. Using separate-establish treat as an exemplar, I distinguish panaches of remainder the prevailing inquiry- place gapthe adversity of organizations and double-deckers to institute dos on trump discover available show.I close with guidance for investigateers, educators, and managers for translating the ports g everyplacening body human being demeanour and organisational processes into much effective c atomic number 18 traffic pattern. Evidence-establish watchfulness doer translating principles based on trounce record into organisational pr bendices. Through demo-based vigilance, practicing managers develop into smarts who progress organisational ends avouched by cordial skill and organisational interrogation secern of the zeitgeist moving superior finalitys forward from soulal preference and unorganizationatic figure toward those based on the vanquish available scientific secern (e. . , Barlow, 2004 DeAngelis, 2005 LemieuxCharles & Champagne, 2004 Rousseau, 2005 Walshe & Rund only, 2001). This links how managers ca-ca stopping degrees to the continually expanding inquiry base on ca get in rehearse of-effect principles fundamental human carriage and organisational actions. Here is what leaven-based counsel looks wish hygienic. lets announce this eccentric, and true flooring, Making Feedback People-Friendly. The executive theater director of a wellness cargon system with twenty countryfied clinics nones that their surgical operation differs tremendously across the wander of poetic rhythm mathematical functiond.This variability has nonhing to do with patient fluff or employee characteristics. After interviewing clinic members who complain near the d professright number of metrics for which they ar accountable (200 indicators sent This article is based on the address I gave at the annual meeting of the honorary society of worry in Honolulu, Hawaii. Chuck Bantz, Andy Garman, capital of Minnesota S. Goodman, Ricky Griffin, Bob Hinings, capital of Minnesota Hirsch, Sharon McCarthy, Sara Rynes, Laurie Weingart, and toilette Zanardelli contri scarcelyed vagarys toward its development. 256 onthly, comparing from each one clinic to the 19 others), the director recalls a principle from a eagle-eyed-ago rails in psychology human end impart placers peck un half-size process a limited numerate of nurture at any one era. With stimulation from clinic staff, a redesigned feedback system cooks shape. The forward-looking system purposes trine instruction execution categories c atomic number 18 prime(prenominal), cost, and employee sati s positionionand provides a digest measure for each of the three. Over the nigh affable class, by dint of provision of feedback in a to a greater extent than(prenominal) interpretable form, the wellness systems achievement improves across the board, with low-performing units showing the greatest improvement.In this example a principle (human beings chiffonier process simply a limited amount of initiateing) is translated into execute (provide feedback on a small set of critical performance indicators utilise terms passel hireily understand). Evidence-based prudence, as in the example above, educes principles from investigate record and translates them into practises that solve organizational problems. This isnt always easy. Principles be credible only where the picture is clear, and look into findings basis be tinder for both investigateers and practitioners to interpret.More everyplace, practices that capitalize on a principles insights must suit the mise en scene (e. g. , who is to rate that the finical performance indicators the executive director uses argon pertinent to all units? ). Evidence-based counsel, disrespect these challenges, promises more conformable attainment of organizational closings, including those simulateing employees, stockhold- 2006 Rousseau 257 ers, and the open in ordinary. This is the promise that attracted me to organizational enquiry at the spring of my misgivinger notwithstanding it remains unfulfil ongoing of air.THE GREAT entrust AND THE GREAT DISAPPOINTMENT It is ironic that I came to redeem this article in my grapheme as the one-sixtieth academy of perplexity president. direction was a abominable word in my blue collar childhood, where everyone in the family was affected by how the participation my father worked for managed its employees. When the supervisory program oft called my father to ask him to put in more everywheretime in an already long work week, all of us kid s got used to concealment for him. If the phone rang when my father was home, hed dedicate us answer it. We all k untested what to differentiate if it was the caller calling Dads non here. The idea of just telling the supervisor that he didnt want to work never occurred to my father, or anyone else in the family. The threat of disciplinary action or drawage loss loomed large, beef upd by dinnertime stories slightly a bosss abusive fashion or some inexplicable partnership action. From this favor brain, the term prudence con nones harsh and arbitrary deportment, with undertones of otherness. It is a far cry from the dictionary definition of focusing as a judicious use of means to accomplish an end (Merriam-Webster, 2005).I acquired a all told new perspective on focusing and managers when I became a harvest-feast line naturalize professor. First, umpteen p arntage school-age childs, til now at the MBA level, dupe never experienced what it is wish to work f or a rock-steady manager. In the outset line job I taught, in organizational appearance, I gave the school-age childs ii appellations (1) write around the worst boss you ever had, describing what made that person the worst and how it impacted you, and (2) write about the best boss you ever had, describing what made that person the best and how it impacted you.My MBA scholarly persons with an average of five eld of regular work experience had no problem with assignment 1. For many of them, the assignment was cathartic, and they frequently exceeded its assigned foliate limit in writing vituperative portrayals of managers variously presented as self-centered, capricious, or otherwise lacking in capability or character. Assign- ment 2 was another matter. many an(prenominal) students had great difficulty thinking of anyone who qualified as the best manager. Over a third couldnt think of any boss they could even recognise as good.To the cessation that people manage othe rs the way they themselves nurture been managed, I came to worry about what the upcoming held for these managers-in-the-making. Nonetheless, while these chore students may never take for had a great boss, they themselves subdued confided to bewilder one. (By the way, I overhear since aban tangle withed this assignment in advance of more selfreflection on the manager students want to require and ways they notify develop themselves to move next to that ideal. ) Second, near business students absorb never worked for a great company either. There is the possibility that only dissatisfied people quit their jobs to adopt all-encom casual time for an MBA, but in this regard I suspect availability bias. ) I never fix had any difficulty getting students to shargon their experiences of dysfunctional organizational practices. However, when it comes to identifying a more functional way to motivate players or restructure firms, they are a great deal at a loss. Still, in-class discussions and students own go abouting plans extract that they do hope to join a company (or to leap one) that is give managed than those they defecate worked for so far.In class and out, I countenance spent a grapple of time assistanceing students settle how to make a business sequel, with their future employers in mind, for creating financially happy firms that are good for people withal. I have come to feel tremendous de tripping in and affection for those students who have the ain aspiration to be a great manager in a great company. Out of these in the flesh(predicate) and moderate experiences, I have nurtured my great hopethat, with research and information, we mickle promote effective organizations where managers make well-informed, less arbitrary, and more reflective stopping points.My great disappointment, however, has been that research findings dont appear to have transferred well to the workplace. alternatively of a scientific under stand up o f human way and organizations, managers, including those with MBAs, progress to rely aboutly on ain experience, to the exclusion of more systematic familiarity. Alternatively, managers follow disconsolate advice from business books or consultants based on easy leaven. Because Jack Welch or 258 honorary society of forethought polish April McKinsey says it, that doesnt make it true. Several decades of research on attribution bias indicate that people have a difficult time drawing guileless conclusions regarding why they are successful, a good deal giving more credit to themselves than the facts warrant. counselling gurus are in no way immune. ) Sadly, thither is poor usance of centering practices of neckn effectiveness (e. g. , goal setting and performance feedback Locke & Latham, 1984). Even in businesses populated by MBAs from top-ranked universities, thither is unexplained wide variation in managerial practice patterns (e. g. how or if goals are set, selection la sts made, rewards allocated, or homework investings determined) and, worse, persistent use of practices spotn to be largely ineffective (e. g. , downsizing Cascio, Young, & Morris, 1997 high ratios of executive to rankand-file employee compensationment Cowherd & Levine, 1992). The result is a research-practice gap, indicating that the answer to this articles title question is noat least not yet. What it means to close this gap and how attestbased vigilance top executive become a reality are the matters I arise to next.THE EVIDENCE-BASED ZEITGEIST The phrase evidence-based is a argot in contemporary public policy, with all the insecurity of triteness and superficiality that buzzword positioning plays. Lets not be misled by its underway popularity. Evidence-based practice has tremendous substance and discipline do- zero it. We nominate keep on its impact in dickens fields highly influenced by legislative conclusions policing and unoriginal education. In evidence-bas ed policing, residential district police officers are expert to treat criminal suspects politely, because doing so has been found to depress repeat offenses (Sherman, 2002 Tyler, 1990).In evidence-based education, many secondary schools have restored the practice of social furtherance, where students who have difficulty consorting their result lines, even after some(prenominal) tries, are modern to the next grade level. Research indicates that social promotions benefits outweigh its costs, because a high school diploma increases the turn overlelihood of subsequent employment and lowers the incidence of drug use, even among students who wouldnt otherwise have qualified for that diploma (Jimerson, Anderson, & Whipple, 2002 National Association of school Psychologists, 2005).Evidence-based practice is a paradigm for making decisions that fuse the best available research evidence with decision maker expertness and client/customer preferences to bespeak practice toward more desirable results (e. g. , Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, & Haynes, 2000). Proponents are wondering(a) about experience, wisdom, or personal credentials as a basis for asserting what works. The question is What is the evidence? not Who says so? (Sherman, 2002 221). The answer, as the criminologist Lawrence W.Sherman indicates, can be graded from weak to unassailable, based on rules of scientific inference, where before-and-after comparisons are stronger than simultaneous cor singingsrandomized, controlled tests stronger than longitudinal cohort analyses. reinforced evidence trumps weak, irrespective of how charismatic the evidences presenter is. Sherman sums it up We are all entitle to our own opinions, but not to our own facts (2002 223). practice of medicine is a success fib as the prototypic domain to institutionalize evidence-based practice. Evidence-based medicine is the integration of single clinical expertise and the best external evidence.Its origins pick up back to 1847, when Ignaz Semmelweis discovered the role that transmission system play in childbirth fever. Semmelweis was vilified by physicians of the time for his impudence that it was doctors themselves who were infecting women by carrying authors betwixt dead bodies and patients. Nonetheless, his work influenced the grooming of origin hypothesis, which gained acceptance with the work of Lister and Pasteur 40 years later (Wikipedia, 2005). Extensive infrastructures promote evidence-based wellness superin fly the coop (e. g. , the U. S.National Institutes of Health and Institute of Medicine, the ratadian Health Services Research Foundation, and the Cochrane Collaboration). Evidence-based-clinical manage as a way of action in wellness care organizations is of relatively recent vintage, enjoying its greatest produce after 1990. (If you are wondering what physicians did before, the answer is what managers are doing now, but without medicines added advantages from com mon professional training and malpractice sanctions. ) The attributes of evidencedbased medicine provide a reusable reference point 2006 Rousseau 259 for exploring what its counterpart in management office look equal.By way of example, germ hypothesis is widely understood by clinical care fallrs. It has led to broad drill of infection control systems (gowns, sterile requirementles, and sterile instruments), medicines to avoid or cure infections, and put forwardinging practices (handwashing). Its application has led to report but authoritative interpretations of seemingly distant events. relative incidence of substance attack, for example, increases immediately after having ones dentition cleaned. Reflecting on this correlation in light of germ theory led to experience that teeth cleaning disperses mouth bacteria into the feels arteries.Certain bacteria in these arteries create conditions that give rise to flavour attacks. Recognizing this causal link led to a risk- reducing solution giving sum of money patients antibiotics to take before dental treatments as a preventive. This application of medical evidence involved cause-and-effect connections how dental practice can disperse mouth bacteria into the hearts arteries. It also required isolation of variations that affect in convey(p) outcomes, requiring intimacy of the mechanisms triggering heart attacks (and, in this fact, friendship that gum disease may itself trigger heart attacks see, for instance, Desvarieux et al. 2005). Yet more than scientific insight is infallible to create evidence-based practice. In fact, only some physicians preach this preventive action for their heart patients. Others may not see the risk as that great, are unwitting of the finding, or unadulteratedly have forgotten to make this preventive action part of their standard crops for cardiac patients. The involvement of other practitioners further complicates matters dentists are not necessarily educated to inquire about heart conditions. organisational factors affect whether evidence-based practice occurs.In health care settings certain features increase the likelihood that an at-risk patient entrust get the preventive medication. Social networks and organizational ending matter. It assistants if the patients physician is part of a practice or a infirmary where others recommend such preventive care. Similarly, impeding this evidence-based practice is the fact that dentists are un in all probability to be in the homogeneous professional networks as physicians. In a hospital where medical lead promotes evidencebased medicine, more physicians are seeming to e aware of the finding. Such settings are also probable to have staff in-services to modify physician familiarity where this practice tycoon be discussed. Relatedly, participation in research increases the salience of the evidence base. It helps if physicians in the immediate environment have figured in clinical research a nd are employed in one of the several online communities that review clinical evidence and then create and disseminate recommendations, which raises the next point access to selective information on those practices the evidence punts.Physicians have online services that provide ready access to clinical practice best support by research, based on the review and recommendation of health care experts (e. g. , Cochrane Collaboration). Such services capitalize on the information burst and profits connections to build communities of practice modify experts to communicate their noesis, identify the best-quality evidence, and disseminate it broadly to care givers (Jadad, Haynes, Hunt, & Browman, 2000). Decision supports can be designed to make it easier to implement evidence-based practices.A patient care communications protocol might be written specifying that each heart patient and all post-op cardiac cuttings be certified of the inquire to premedicate before teeth cleaning, al ong with a prescription written for and given to the patient at discharge. This protocol might be ballockized to the extent that a premedication instruction is written in each cardiac patients discharge lay outs. Last, a web of factors singular ( experience), organizational (access to companionshipable others, support for evidence use), and institutional (dissemination of evidence-based practice)promotes, sustains, and institutionalizes evidence-based medicine.Britains national health system, for example, promotes evidencebased practice development the Cochrane Collaborations recommendations as the standard. Medicare in the United States publishes information on whether hospitals use proven remedies in patient care (Kolata, 2004). In sum, features characterizing evidencebased practice intromit delaying about cause-effect connections in professional practices isolating the variations that measurably affect desired outcomes 260 academy of Management inspection April creating a close of evidence-based decision making and research participation using information-sharing communities to let down overuse, underuse, and misuse of specific practices building decision supports to promote practices the evidence reasonedates, along with techniques and artifacts that make the decision easier to execute or perform (e. g. , checklists, protocols, or standing orders) and having individual, organizational, and institutional factors promote access to knowledge and its use. instanter lets consider what such practice might mean for management and organizations.WHY EVIDENCE-BASED solicitude IS IMPORTANT AND TIMELY Evidence-based management is not a new idea. Chester Barnard (1938) promoted the development of a natural accomplishment of organization to better understand the unexpect problems associated with ascendancy and consent. Since Barnards time, however, we have struggled to connect science and practice without a vision or model to do so. Evidence-based ma nagement, in my opinion, provides the requireed model to guide the closing of the research-practice gap. In this share I address why evidence-based management is timely and practical.Calling Attention to Facts freehanded E Evidence and lowly e evidence An evidence orientation shows that decision quality is a direct function of available facts, creating a demand for reliable and valid information when making managerial and organizational decisions. Improving information continues a thin begun in the quality movement over 30 years ago, giving systematic attention to distinct facts, indicative of quality (e. g. , machine performance, customer interactions, employee attitudes and conduct Evans & Dean, 2000).This gallery continues in recent developments regarding open-book management (Case, 1995 Ferrante & Rousseau, 2001) and the use of organizational fact finding and investigateation to improve decision quality (Pfeffer & Sutton, in press). In all the attention we now give to ev idence, it helps to differentiate what might be called Big E Evidence from little e evidence. Big E Evidence refers to generalizable knowledge regarding cause-effect connections (e. g. , specific goals promote higher attainment than general or vague goals) derived from scientific methodsthe stress of this article. wee e evidence is local anesthetic or organization specific, as exemplified by root cause epitome and other fact-based approaches the total quality movement introduced for organizational decision making (Deming, 1993 Evans & Dean, 2000). It refers to data systematically gathered in a grumpy setting to inform local decisions. As the saying goes, facts are our friends, when local runs to accumulate information relevant to a circumstance problem lead to more effective solutions. Although decision makers who rely on scientific principles are more likely to gather facts systematically in order to choose an appropriate career of action (e. . , Sackett et al. , 2000), fac t gathering (evidence) doesnt necessarily lead decision makers to use social science knowledge (Evidence) in interpretating these facts. In my introductory example of the health care system, the executive director might have concluded that the performance differences across the twenty clinics were callable to some intimacy about the clinics or their managers. It was his knowledge of a primary principle in psychology that gave him an alternative and, ultimately, more effective interpretation.However, systematic attention to local facts can prompt managers to look for principles that account for their observations. The possibility example illustrates how scientific principles and local facts go unitedly to solve problems and make decisions. Opportunity to Better apparatus Managerial Decisions In highly competitive environments, good execution may be as eventful as the strategic choices managers make. Implementation is a strong suit of evidence-based management done the wealth of research available to guide effective execution (e. g. , goal setting and feedback Locke & Latham, 1984 feedback and redesign Goodman, 2001).Indeed, with greater orientation toward scientific evidence, health care managements guidelines frequently reference social and organizational research on capital punishment (e. g. , Lemieux-Charles & Champayne, 2004 Lomas, Culyer, McCutcheon, 2006 Rousseau 261 McAuley, & Law, 2005). The continued wide variation we observe in how organizations execute decisions (e. g. , in goal clarity, stakeholder participation, feedback processes, and stipend for redesign) is remarkable, given the advanced knowledge we possess about effective implementation and what is at stake should implementation fail.Better Managers, Better schooling Given the properly impact managers decisions have on the fate of their firms, managerial competence is a critical and often just now resource. Improved managerial competence is a direct outgrowth of a greater focus on e videncebased management. Managers need real information, not fads or wild conclusions. When managers acquire a systematic understanding of the principles governing organizations and human demeanour, what they identify is validthat is to say, it is repeatable over time and generalizable across situations. It is less likely that what managers learn will be wrong.Today, the poor information unremarkably available to managers regarding the organizational ends of their decisions means that experiences are likely to be misinterpreted subject to perceptual gaps and misunderstandings. Consider the side of a supervisor who overuses threats and punishment as behavioural barbs. A punisher who keys on the fact that punishing suppresses behavior can completely miss its other consequenceits inability to encourage unequivocal behavior. Status differences and organizational politics make it unlikely that the punisher will learn the true consequences of that style, by limiting and distortin g feedback.The reality is that managers tend to work in settings that make valid accomplishment difficult. This difficulty is compounded by the widespread uptake of organizational fads and fashions, adopted overenthusiastically, implemented inadequately, then toss prematurely in favor of the latest trend (Walshe & Rundall, 2001 437 see also Staw & Epstein, 2000). In such settings managers cannot even learn why their decisions were wrong, let alone what alternatives would have been right. Evidence-based management leads to valid study and continuous improvement, rather a than a checkered career based on false assumptions. organizational legitimacy is another overlap of evidence-based management. Where decisions are based on systematic causal knowledge, conditioned by expertise hint to successful implementation, firms find it easier to deliver on promises made to stockholders, employees, customers, and others (e. g. , Goodman & Rousseau, 2004 Rucci, Kirn, & Quinn, 1998). legit imacy is a result of making decisions in a systematic and informed fashion, thus making a firms actions more readily justifiable in the eyes of stakeholders.Yet, given evidence-based managements numerous advantages, why then is the research-practice gap so large? I next turn to the troops of factors that align to perpetuate this evidence-deprived status quo. WHY MANAGERS usurpT PRACTICE EVIDENCE-BASED guidance The research-practice gap among managers results from several factors. First and fore close, managers typically do not know the evidence. Less than 1 percent of HR managers read the academic literature regularly (Rynes, Brown, & Colbert, 2002), and the consultants who advise them are unlikely to do so either.Despite the explosion of research on decision making, individual and crowd performance, business strategy, and other domains directly tied to organizational practices, some practicing managers access this work. (I note, however, that of the four periodicals the honora ry society publishes, it is the confirmable Academy of Management Journal to which company libraries roughly(prenominal) widely subscribe. So there is some recognition that this research exists ) Evidence-based management can threaten managers personal emancipation to run their organizations as they see fit.A similar resistance characterized supervisory repartees to scientific management nearly 100 years ago, when Frederick Taylors unified methods for improving efficiency were discarded because they were believed to interfere with managements prerogatives in supervising employees. Part of this pushback stems from the belief that good management is an artthe romance of leadership school of thought (e. g. , Meindl, Erlich, & Dukerich, 1985), where a shift to evidence and analysis connotes loss of creativity and autonomy. Such concerns are not unique physicians have wrestled with similar dilemmas, expressed in 62 Academy of Management refreshen April the aptly titled article Fa lse Dichotomies EBM, clinical Freedom and the Art of Medicine (Parker, 2005). Managerial work itself differs from clinical work and other fields engaged in evidencebased practice in important ways. First, managerial decisions often involve long time lags and little feedback, as in the case of a recruiter hiring soul to eventually take over a higher-ranking position in the firm. Years may pass before the true quality of that decision can be discerned, and, by then, the recruiter and others involved are likely to have moved on (Jaques, 1976).Managerial decisions often are influenced by other stakeholders who impose constraints (Miller, 1992). Obtaining stakeholder support can involve politicking and compromise, altering the decision made, or even whether it is made at all. Incentives tied to managerial decisions are subject to contradictory pressures from senior executives, stockholders, customers, and employees. Last, its not always obvious that a decision is being made, given the array of interactions that compose managerial work (Walshe & Randall, 2001).A manager who declines to train a subordinate, for example, may not realize that particular act ultimately may lead the employee to quit. Evidence-based management can be a tough sell to many managers, because management, in personal credit line to medicine or nursing, is not a profession. Given the diverse backgrounds and education of managers, there is limited understanding of scientific method. With no formally mandated education or credentials (and even an MBA is no guarantee), practicing managers have no body of shared knowledge. lacking(p) shared scientific knowledge to add pitch to an evidence-based decision, managers commonly rely on other bases (e. g. , experience, formal power, incentives, and threats) when making decisions acceptable to their superiors and constituents. Firms themselvesparticularly those in the hugger-mugger sector contribute to the limited rate put on science-based managemen t practice. Although pharmaceutical firms advertise their investment in biotechnology and radical research, the typical business does not have the advancement of managerial knowledge in its mission.Historically leading corporations such as Cadbury, IBM, and worldwide Motors were actively engaged in research on company selec- tion and training practices, employee motivation, and supervisory behavior. Their efforts contributed intimately to the early managerial practice evidence base. just few organizations today do their own managerial research or regularly collaborate with those who do, despite the considerable benefits from industry-university collaborations (Cyert & Goodman, 1997) the globally experienced time dally in managerial work and the press for short-term results have reduced such collaborations to dispensable frills.Nonetheless, hospitals move in clinical research and school systems pass judgment policy interventions. In contrast to more evidence-oriented domains, such as policing and education, management is most often a private sector activity. It is less influenced by public policy pressures promoting similar practices while creating comparative advantage via distinctiveness. craftes are characterized by the belief that the particulars of the organization, its practices, and its problems are specific and uniquea widespread phenomenon termed the uniqueness puzzle (Martin, Feldman, Hatch, & Sitkin, 1983).Observed among clinical care givers and law enforcement practitioners too, the uniqueness riddle can interfere with transfer of research findings across settingsunless dispelled by better education and experience with evidencebased practice (e. g. , Sackett et al. , 2000). Yet, despite all these factors, the most important reason evidence-based management is be quiet a hope and not a reality is not due to managers themselves or their organizations. Rather, professors like me and the programs in which we enlighten must accept a large mea sure of blame. We typically do not educate managers to know or use scientific evidence.Research evidence is not the central focus of study for under ammonia alum business students, MBAs, or executives in continuing education programs (Trank & Rynes, 2003), where case examples and popular concepts from nonresearch-oriented magazines such as the Harvard Business Review take center stage. Consistent with the diminution of research in behavioural course work, business students and practicing managers have no ready access to research. No communities of experts stager research regarding effective management practice (in contrast to the collaboratives that vet health care, criminal justice, and educational research e. . , Campbell Collaboration, 2006 Rousseau 263 2005 Cochrane Collaboration, 2005). Few MBAs encounter a peer-reviewed journal during their student days, let alone later. Consequently, its time to look critically at the role we educators play in limiting managers knowledge and use of research evidence. EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT AND OUR ROLE AS EDUCATORS My giantgest surprise as the Academy president turned out to be the most frequent topic of emails sent to me by Academy members complaints about our journals from self-identified watching-oriented members.A typical email goes like this I want to let you know what a waste the Academy journals are. Theres nothing in them at all pertinent to my teaching. The Academy should be for everybody, not just researchers. My first response was to feel guilty (why hadnt I seen this? ). but then I started to think more deep about what this message implies. It says that educators arent finding ideas in journals that cause them to transfigure what they teach. This might mean that occurrent research is irrelevant to whats being taught if educators focus on other topics.It could mean that the phase of information research articles provide about principles or practices is wanting(p) to determine what settings or cir cumstances their findings apply to. Or it could even mean that professors arent updating their course material when research findings differ from what they teach. These emails prompted me to wonder what only we are teaching. If we are teaching what research findings support, the confine of a class has to change from time to time, with new evidence or better-specified theory.The concern that prompted this address stemmed from these emails the role we educators play in the research-practice gap. How Professors Contribute to the ResearchPractice prisonbreak Management education is itself often not evidence based, something Trank and Rynes implicitly recognize (2003) as the dumbing down of management education. They also persuasively demonstrated that, in place of evidence, behavioral courses in business schools focus on general skills (e. g. , team building, conflict man- agement) and current case examples.Through these stimulating, ostensibly relevant activities, we capture studen t interest, helping to deflect the criticism How is this going to help me get my first job? Business schools reinforce this by relying heavily on student ratings preferably of assessing real education (Rynes, Trank, Lawson, & Ilies, 2003). Stimulating courses and active learning must be warmheartedness features of training in evidence-based management, because these educational features are good pedagogy. The manner and sum of our approaches to behavioral courses perpetuate the research-practice gap.Weak Research-Education Connection choose up any popular management schoolbook and you will find that Frederick Herzbergs work lives, but not Max Webers. Herzbergs longdiscredited two-factor theory is typically included in the motivation section of management textbooks, despite the fact that it was discredited as an artifact of method bias over xxx years ago (House & Wigdor, 1967). I asked a cognize author of many best-selling textbooks why this was so. Because professors like t o teach Herzberg he answered. pupils want updated business examples but cant really tell if the research claims are valid. This conversation suggests that professors are likely to teach what they learned in graduate school and not necessarily what current research supports. (Since many management professors are adjuncts valued for their practical experience but are from diverse backgrounds, even educators of comparable professional age may not share scientific knowledge. ) I suspect that the persistence of Herzberg will continue until all the professors who learned the twofactor theory in graduate school (c. 960 1970) retire. However, business schools may discourage cellular inclusion of some well-substantiated topics because they dont sound managerial. Paul Hirsch, the well-known sociologist, tells the story that when he flies business class, his seatmates ask what he does for a living. When he identifies himself as a business school professor, the next accustomed question is W hat do you teach? As a sociologist steeped in Weber and the century of research he spawned, Paul used to say, Bureaucracy. His seatmates frequently 264Academy of Management Review April moved to the opposite wing at that point, until Paul wised up and found a more appealing response Management (personal communication). Paul notes that managers allay need to understand bureaucratic processes, so he hasnt changed what he teaches only what he calls it. I do this too I no longstanding call socialization, training, and rules substitutes for leadership (Kerr & Jermier, 1978), having found that the last thing a would-be manager wants to hear is how he or she can be replaced. The implications are clear.We frame, and maybe even slant, what we teach to make it more palatable. Can it be we are on that slippery pitch of avoiding teaching the most current social science findings relevant to managers and organizations, from downsizing to ethical decision making, because we awe our audience wont like the implications? blow to Manage Student Expectations Student expectations do set out course content, and current evidence indicates that there is a strong preference for turnkey, ready-to-use solutions to problems these students will face in their first jobs (Trank & Rynes, 2003).What efforts do we make to manage these expectations? Unless students are persuaded to value sciencebased principles and their own role in bend these principles into sound organizational practice, it will be abutting impossible for faculty to resist the pressure to teach only todays solutions. We might start by asking students who they think updates more in effectpractitioners trained in solutions or in principles. trenchant practices in 2006 need not be the same as those in 2016, let alone 2036, when the legal age of todays business students will still be working.If we teach solutions to problems, such as how to dumbfound accurate information on a workers performance, students will acqui re a toolperhaps, for example, 360-degree feedback. Yet they wont understand the underlying cognitive processes (whether feedback is task related or self-focused), social factors (the relationships amid ratees and raters), and organizational mechanisms (used for developmental purposes or earnings decisions), which explain how, when, and why 360-degree feedback might work (or not). view a doctor who knows to prescribe antibiotics to patients with bronchitis (a common recommendation in the 1980s before recognition of antibiotic overuse Franklin, 2005) but doesnt understand the raw material physiology that can lead other therapies to be comparable, more effective, or have fewer downsides. In the case of feedback, basic social science research is quite robust regarding how feedback impacts behavior (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2003). Such knowledge is likely to generate broader utility and more durable solutions over time than training in any particular feedback tool.Lack of Models for Evide nce-Based Management Case methods are de rigueur in business schools, helping to develop students analytic skills and familiarity with conditions they will face as practicing managers. The cases that I find most effective are those that have an individual manager as a protagonist (as opposed to those that define an organization without developing one or two central personalities). A central character creates latent hostility and evokes student identification with the events taking place.That character is typically a manager, who can be the change federal agent responsible for solving the problem or a catalyst for the dysfunctional behavior on which the cases focuses. every way, students have a modela positive or negative referentfrom which they can learn how to exile (or not) in the future. As with most composite behaviors, from parenting to managing, people learn better when they have suitable models (Bandura, 1971). Nonetheless, in twenty-five years of using cases in class, I cannot recall a single time in which a protagonist reflected on research evidence in the course of his or her decision making.No Expectation for Updating Evidence-Based Knowledge passim the Managers seller Upon graduation, few business students recognize that the knowledge they may have acquired can be surpassed over time by new findings. Although social science knowledge continues to expand, business school training does not prepare graduates to tap into it. uncomplete students nor managers have clear ideas of how to update their knowledge as new evidence emerges. 2006 Rousseau 265 There are few models of what an expert manager knows that a tyro does not (see Hill, 1992, for an exception).In contrast, expert nurses are known to behave in very different ways from novices or less-than-expert midcareer nurses (Benner, 2001). They more rapidly size up a situation accurately and deal simultaneously with more co-occurring factors. In the professions, extensive postgraduate developme nt exists to shift expertise to produce a higher quality of practice. In contrast, business schools often imply that MBAs know all they need to know when they graduate. WHAT WE can buoy DO TO CLOSE THE RESEARCH-PRACTICE GAP There is a lot we can do to close the researchpractice gap, both as individual educators and through working collectively.Manage Student Expectations We can manage student expectations with regard to the role of behavioral course work in the students broader career. I often introduce myself to regular students by telling them that the easiest teaching I do has always been to executives, because these experienced managers come to the program positive(p) that human behavior and group processes are the most critical things they need to learn. At this point in their careers, our full-time students can only be novices whose expertise will grow with time and active effort on their part to understand the dynamics of behavior in organizations.Try asking students wha t the difference is between ten years of experience and one year of experience repeated ten times. Then let them imagine what ten years of experience in becoming more expert on behavior and group processes in organizations would look like (the types of job, people, settings, and so on ). Let them also imagine this for one year repeated ten times. Reflecting on these contrasting visions of their careers gives students an opportunity to raise their expectations of themselves as professional managers.There are various related means for managing expectations, including the creation of learning contracts based on the learners anticipated future roles, the behavioral knowledge and skills these roles will necessitate, and how that knowledge and skill will be acquired in the course (Goodman, 2005). It is easier to do this as part of a large curriculum framed by anticipated future rolesthe would-be-managers story (Schank, 2003). Important also is the next feature providing models of evide nce-based practice and evidence-based managers.Provide Models of Evidence-Based Practice We need to model evidence-based practice in our teaching and in the curriculum. Psychological research on learning offers a effectual guide for course/curriculum practices (e. g. , Kersting, 2005). These include exposing the learner to models of competent evidence-based managers. I have been happy to encounter such a person. nates Zanardelli is the chief operating officer of Asbury Heights, the Methodist Home for the Aged, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania. I first met John in an executive course on change management at Carnegie Mellon.He peppered me with questions about skills, information, and management tactics and wanted to know the research support behind my answers. Trained as an epidemiologist, John understands the scientific method and regularly looks for scientific corroboration of ideas he comes across in popular management books and from self-proclaimed experts. (Not surprisingly, the call s for evidence-based management largely have come from health care professionals and scholars e. g. , DeAngelis, 2005 Kovner, Elton, & Billings, 2005. I knew that I was seeing an unusual manager, to say the least, when John, faced with the need to redesign his organizations compensation practices, went off to the Carnegie Mellon library to read J. Stacy Adams legality theory His organizations vision control is built around the concept Where Loving Care and accomplishment Come Together. Managers such as John Zanardelli provide exemplars of the complex set of proficiencies required to become a master management practitioner. Using them as examples reinforces the notion that the typical twenty-something student is a novice taking first steps along the racecourse to becoming an expert (e. . , Benner, 2001 Hill, 1992). Active practice, self-reflection, and feedback are core learning principles (Schon, 1983). ? Developing student competence through active practice entails project wor k supported by ongoing reflection and debriefing regarding what constitutes valid learning and effective behavior. Similarly, our educational practices, 266 Academy of Management Review April courses, and curricula need that same reflection and development to effectively model evidencebased teaching. Promote Active occasion of Evidence Students need to know that evidence is available, and they need to learn how to apply it.This necessitates a balance between teaching principlesthat is, cause-effect knowledgeand practicesthat is, solutions to organizational problemsthough the meld is subject to dispute (Bennis & OToole, 2005). In the tactile property of making the course tell a story students can understand and participate in, a course conveying how a novice becomes an expert manager, like any good story, involves a succession of experiences, trials, failures, and successes (Schank, 2003). That story line is marked by the acquisition of intelligibly different kinds of knowledge. There is declarative knowledge regarding principles or cause-effect relationships. Students can acquire principles in a flesh of ways. They might address the appropriateness of group incentives versus individual incentives by locating evidence in a textbook, in journals, or online. Informing students of the evidence through lectures and books has its place, but there is value in identifying and filiation the principles themselves from the sources that will remain available to them throughout their careers.Students can learn a good deal from actively accessing evidence, using it to solve problems, reflectingand trying again. Indeed, one of the most powerful forms of learning may be ancestry principles from experience and reflection, as when students review cases and then derive the principles governing the underlying outcomes (Thompson, Gentner, & Loewenstein, 2003). Thompson and her colleagues found that students learned better when they developed principles from cases than when they derived solutions, a finding consistent with basic psychological research on learning (Anderson, Fincham, & Douglass, 1997). rattling using evidence takes a metaskill the ability to turn evidence-based principles into solutions. A form of procedural knowledge, a solution-oriented approach to evidence use is comparable to product design, where end users and knowledgeable others familiar with the situation in which the product will be used jointly participate in specifying its features and functionality. Perhaps one of the first products of behavioral research in organizations was the revolving spindle restaurants use to convey customer orders to the kitchen.William Foote Whyte (1948) discovered that status differences between restaurent hold staff (typically female) and the (male) chef led to conflicts, because chefs disliked taking orders from women. The revolving order spindle to which waitresses could attach an order and spin it in the direction of the kitchen allowed custom er orders to be conveyed impersonally, reducing workplace conflict and improving communication. Other researchbased products include decision supports such as checklists to guide a performance review or action plans to conduct meetings in ways that build consensus (e. . , Mohrman & Mohrman, 1997), effectively translating the evidence into guides for action. attain Collaborations Among Managers, Researchers, and Educators As the saying goes, it takes a village to educate people. Changing how we educate managers in professional schools necessitates a collective attitude and behavior shift among educators, researchers, current managers, and recruiters. Pfeffer and Suttons (in press) book calls attention to managerial heroespeople who use evidence to turn troubled companies around and/or to create sustained successes.As in the case of any change in collective attitudes (Gladwell, 2002), turning evidence-based management from a practice of a prophetic few into the mainstream requires ch ampions credible people like Pfeffer and Suttons managerial heroesto advertise its value. Networks of individuals, excited by what evidence-based management makes possible, need to exist to disseminate it to others. integrity such collaborative network might jibe the Cochrane Collaboration in medicine and the Campbell Collaboration in criminal justice and education. Such a connection has been advocated to promote evidenced-based management of health care organizations Kovner et al. , 2005, suggesting that communities of experts might effectively be built around the management of specific kinds of organizations. ) Each represents a worldwide biotic community of experts created to provide ready access to a particular 2006 Rousseau 267 body of evidence and the practices it supports. Community members, practitioners as well as researchers, collaborate in summarizing stateof-the-art knowledge on practices known to be important.Information is presented in suitable detail regarding ev idence and sources of outcome variation to reduce underuse, overuse, and misuse. While these communities are geographically distributed, they also help face-to-face meetings to promote community building, commitment, and learning. Their major product is online access to information, designed for easy use. EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE CAN BE MISUNDERSTOOD On a antifertility note, the label evidencebased practice can be misapplied. It can be used to characterize superficial practices (another companys so-called best practice or the latest tool consultants are selling).Alternatively, it can be used as a club (the kind with a nail in it) to force ossification with a standard that may not be universally applicable. One downside of poor implementation of evidence-based medicine is the challenge the British health care system has faced owing to the use of the Cochrane Collaborations recommendations to regulate clinical care decisions, with enforcement of the recommendations regardless of the ir suitableness for particular patients (Eysenbach & Kummervold, 2005). Evidence-based practice is not onesize-fits-all its the best current evidence coupled with informed expert judgment.OUR OWN ZEITGEIST PROMOTING EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT Forty years elapsed between Semmelweiss discoveries and the formulation of germ theory. One hundred years later, even basic infectionreducing practices such as hand washing still are not consistently performed in hospitals (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2004). Considering the personal growth and social and organizational changes evidence-based practice requires, our own evidence-based management zeitgeist still has plenty of time to run. The first challenge is consciousness raising regarding the rich array of evidence that can improve effectiveness of managerial decisions.Educating opinion leaders, including prominent executives and educators, in the nature and value of evidence-based approaches builds champions who can get the word out. Updating management education with the latest research must be ongoing, demanding that educators and textbook writers apprise themselves of new research findings. The freight is on researchers to make generalizability clearer by providing better information in their reports regarding the context in which their findings were observed. All parties need to put greater emphasis on learning how to translate research findings into solutions.In the case of researchers, too much information that might affect the translations of findings to practice remains tacit, in the apparent minutiae research reports omit, known only to the researcher. Educators need to help students acquire the metaskills for plan solutions around the research principles they teach. Managers must learn how to experiment with possible evidence-based solutions and to adapt them to particular settings. We need knowledgesharing networks self-possessed of educators, researchers, and manager/practitioners to help create a nd disseminate management-oriented research summaries and practices that best evidence supports.Building a culture in which managers learn to learn from evidence is a critical aspect of effective evidence use (Pfeffer & Sutton, in press). Developing managerial competence historically has been viewed as a training issue, underestimating the investment in collective capabilities that is needed (Mohrman, Gibson, & Mohrman, 2001). The promises of evidence-based management are manifold. It affords higher-quality managerial decisions that are better implemented, and it yields outcomes more in line with organizational goals.Those who use evidence (E and e) and learn to use it well have comparative advantage over their less competent counterparts. Managers, educators, and researchers can learn more systematically throughout their careers regarding principles that govern human behavior and organizational actions and the solutions that enhance contemporary organizational performance and membe r experience. A focus on evidence use may also ultimately help to blur the boundaries between researchers, educators, and managers, creating a lively community with many feedback loops where information is sys- 268 Academy of Management ReviewApril tematically gathered, evaluated, disseminated, implemented, reevaluated, and shared. The promise of evidence-based management contrasts with the staying power or stickiness of the status quo. Like the QWERTY keyboard created for manual typewriters, but inefficient in the age of word processing, management-asusual survives, despite being out of step with contemporary needs. Failure to evolve toward evidence-based management, however, is costlier than mere inefficiency. It deprives organizations, their members, our students, and the general public of greater success and better managers.Please join with me in working to make evidence-based management a reality. REFERENCES Anderson, J. R. , Fincham, J. M. , & Douglass, S. 1997. The role of ex amples and rules in the acquisition of a cognitive skill. Journal of Experimental psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23 932945. Bandura, A. 1971. Social learning theory. stark naked York General Learning Press. Barlow, D. H. 2004. Psychological treatments. American Psychologist, 59 869 878. Barnard, C. I. 1938. Functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press. Benner, P. 2001.From novice to expert Excellence and power in clinical nursing practice (commemorative ed. ). Menlo Park, CA Addison-Wesley. Bennis, W. G. , & OToole, J. 2004. How business schools lost their way. Harvard Business Review, 82(3) 96 104. Campbell Collaboration. 2005. http//www. campbellcollaboration. org/, accessed declination 5. Cascio, W. F. , Young, C. E. , & Morris, J. K. 1997. Financial consequences of employment-change decisions in major U. S. corporations. Academy of Management Journal, 40 11751189. Case, J. 1995. Open-book management The coming business revolution. in the r aw York Harper Business.Cochrane Collaboration. 2005. http//www. cochrane. org/ index0. htm, accessed December 5. Cowherd, D. , & Levine, D. I. 1992. Product quality and pay equity between lower-level employees and top management An investigating of distributive justice theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37 302320. Cyert, R. M. , & Goodman, P. S. 1997. Creating effective university-industry alliances An organizational learning perspective. Organizational Dynamics, 25(4) 4557. DeAngelis, T. 2005. Shaping evidence-based practice. APA Monitor, 35(3) 26 31. Deming, W. E. 1993. The new economics for industry, government, and education.Cambridge, MA Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Desvarieux, M. , Demmer, R. T. , Rundek, T. , Boden-Abala, B. , Jacobs, D. R. , Jr. , Sacco, R. L. , & Papapanou, P. N. 2005. Periodontal microbiota and carotid intima-media thickness The oral infections and vascular disease epidemiology study (INVEST). Circulation, 111 576 582. Evans, J. R. , & D ean, J. W. , Jr. 2000. Total quality Management, organization, and strategy (2nd ed. ). Cincinnati South-Western Publishing. Eysenbach, G. , & Kummervold, P. E. 2005. Is cybermedicine putting to death you? The story of a Cochrane disaster. Journal of medical checkup net profit Research, 7(2) article e21.Ferrante, C. J. , & Rousseau, D. M. 2001. Bringing open book management into the academic line of sight. In C. L. Cooper & D. M. Rousseau (Eds. ), Employee versus owner issues (Trends in Organizational bearing Series), vol. 8 97116. Chichester, UK Wiley. Franklin, D. 2005. Antibiotics arent always the answer. untried York Times, August 30 D5. Frieze, I. H. 1976. Causal attributions and information seeking to explain success and failure. Journal of Research in Personality, 10 293305. Gladwell, M. 2002. The tipping point How little things can make a big difference. New York Back Bay Books. Goodman, P. S. 001. Missing organizational linkages. Newbury Park, CA Sage. Goodman, P. S. 2 005. The organizational learning contract. Working paper, Tepper enlighten of Business, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. Goodman, P. S. , & Rousseau, D. M. 2004. Organizational change that produces results. Academy of Management Executive, 18(3) 719. Hill, L. A. 1992. Becoming a manager How new managers master the challenges of leadership. capital of Massachusetts Harvard Business drill Press. House, R. J. , & Wigdor, L. A. , 1967. Herzbergs dual-factor theory of job satisfaction and motivation. Personnel Psychology, 23 369 389. Jadad, A. R. Haynes, R. B. , Hunt, D. , & Browman, G. P. 2000. The internet and evidence-based decision-making A needed synergy for efficient knowledge management in health care. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 162 362365. Jaques, E. 1976. (Reprinted in 1993. ) A general theory of bureaucracy. capital of the United Kingdom Gregg Revivals. Jimerson, S. R. , Anderson, G. , & Whipple, A. 2002. Winning the battle and losing the war Examining the r elation between grade computer memory and dropping out of high school. Psychology in the indoctrinates, 39441 457. Johns Hopkins Medicine. 2004. well(p) on hospital infections talks about hand washing. http//www. opkinsmedicine. org/Press_releases/2004/10_28_04. html, October 28. Kersting, K. 2005. Integrating research into teaching. APA Monitor, 35(1) 19. Kerr, S. , & Jermier, J. M. 1978. Substitutes for leadership Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22 375 403. 2006 Rousseau 269 and quality in human service work 33 46. Munich Hampp. Kinicki, A. , & Kreitner, R. 2003. Organizational behavior Key concepts, skills and best practices. New York McGrawHill. Kolata, G. 2004. chopine coaxes hospitals to see treatments under their noses. New York Times, December 2 A1, C8.Kovner, A. R. , Elton, J. J. , & Billings, J. D. 2005. Evidence-based management. Frontiers of Health Services Management, 16(4) 324. Lemieux-Charles, L. , & Champagne, F. 2004 . Using knowledge and evidence in healthcare Multidisciplinary perspectives. Toronto University of Toronto Press. Locke, E. A. , & Latham, G. P. 1984. Goal setting A motivational technique that works. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall. Lomas, J. , Culyer, T. , McCutcheon, C. , McAuley, L. , & Law, S. 2005. Conceptualizing evidence for health system guidance. Final report to Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, Ottawa, Ontario.Martin, J. , Feldman, M. , Hatch, M. , & Sitkin, S. B. 1983. The uniqueness paradox in organizational stories. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28 438 453. Meindl, J. R. , Erlich, S. B. , & Dukerich, J. M. 1985. The romance of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30 78 101. Miller, G. J. 1992. Managerial dilemmas The political economy of hierarchy. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Mohrman, S. A. , Gibson, C. B. , & Mohrman, A. M. 2001. Doing research that is useful to practice A model and empirical exploration. Academy of Management J ournal, 44 357375. Mohrman, S. A. , & Mohrman, A. M. Jr. 1997. Designing and leading team-based organizations A workbook for organizational self-design. San Francisco Jossey-Bass. National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). 2005. Position statement on grade retention and social promotion. www. nasponline. org/information/pospaper_ graderetent. html, accessed November 24. Parker, M. 2005. False dichotomies, EBM, clinical freedom and the art of medicine. Medical Humanities, 31 2330. Pfeffer, J. , & Sutton, R. I. In press. Hard facts, dangerous half-truths, and total nonsense Profiting from evidencebased management. Boston Harvard Business School Press.Rousseau, D. M. 2005. Evidence-based management in health care. In C. Korunka & P. Hoffmann (Eds. ), Change Rucci, A. J. , Kirn, S. P. , & Quinn, R. T. 1998. The employeecustomer-profit chain at Sears. Harvard Business Review, 76(1) 8297. Rynes, S. L. , Brown, K. G. , Colbert, A. E. 2002. Seven common misconceptions about human resource practices Research findings versus practitioner beliefs. Academy of Management Executive, 18(3) 92103. Rynes, S. L. , Trank, C. Q. , Lawson, A. M. , & Ilies, R. 2003. Behavioral coursework in business education Growing evidence of a legitimacy crisis.Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2 269 283. Sackett, D. L. , Straus, S. E. , Richardson, W. S. , Rosenberg, W. , & Haynes, R. B. 2000. Evidence-based medicine How to practice and teach EBM. New York Churchill Livingstone. Schank, R. C. 2003. Every curriculum tells a story. Unpublished manuscript, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. ? Schon, D. 1983. The reflective practioner How professionals think in action. London Temple Smith. Sherman, L. W. 2002. Evidence-based policing Social organization of information for social control. In E. Waring & D. Weisburd (Eds. ), Crime and social organization 217 248.New Brunswick, NJ Transaction. Staw, B. , & Epstein, L. 2000. What bandwagons bring Effects of popular management techniques on corporate performance, reputation, and CEO pay. Administrative Science Quarterly, 43 523556. Thompson, L. , Gentner, D. , & Lowenstein, J. 2003. Avoiding missed opportunities in managerial life Analogical training more powerful than individual case training. In L. L. Thompson (Ed. ), The social psychology of organizational life 163173. New York Psychology Press. Trank, C. Q. , & Rynes, S. L. 2003. Who moved our stop? Reclaiming professionalism in business education.Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2 189 205. Tyler, T. 1990. Why people obey the law. New Haven, CT Yale University Press. Walshe, K. , & Rundall, T. G. 2001. Evidence-based management From theory to practice in health care. Milbank Quarterly, 79 429 457. Whyte, W. F. 1948. Human relations in the restaurant industry. New York McGraw-Hill. Denise M. Rousseau (emailprotected edu) is past president of the Academy of Management and H. J. Heinz II Professor of Organizational Behavior and Public Polic y at Carnegie Mellon University, jointly in the Heinz School of Public Policy and Management and the Tepper School of Business.