Comparative Politics Research Paper topic Assignment

Comparative Politics Research Paper topic - Assignment Example The rise of sectarianism in both Bahrain and Kuwait is firmly held in the venerable problems of governance and the elite manipulation of the Sunni and Shiite identities. Massive loss of lives in the gulf region has been as a result of the deep religious differences between these two sects. The re-emergence of identity politics in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia has left in its tail worrying number of deaths in close by countries and the continued manipulation of the identity by the ruling families might degenerate into violence in these countries. According to Saikal and Acharya (7), during the spring, protesters in Bahrain were quelled through manipulation of the sectarian divide. The stability of the political system in Saudi Arabia on the other hand ensured that the protests were unheard of in the monarchial state. Interests in the sectarianism politics in the region has aroused a lot of interest; particularly, the causes and the manner in which it continues to shape politics in the two

Skyscrapers in Chicago Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Skyscrapers in Chicago - Essay Example [2] According to Think Quest Library, a skyscraper is a "multi-storied building constructed on steel skeleton, combining extraordinary height with ordinary rooms such as would be found in low buildings, the term originated in the United States in the later 1880s after buildings in New York reached ten stories a skyscraper". These are very tall habitable building which stands out clearly above its surrounding built environment and significantly changes the overall skyline of this particular city. [2] Originally buildings were made with a broader base to support the entire building. As time progressed and technologies evolved higher and thinner buildings started to become more practical. The crucial developments for modern skyscrapers were steel, glass, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and elevators. Steel and reinforced concrete allowed higher buildings to be built on a small patch of land. The water pumps were essential to pump water up to higher levels for the use of constructions and as well as utility. Primitive elevators of various designs had been used for centuries, and starting in the mid 19th century, steam-operated elevators were used to move materials in factories, mines, and warehouses. But these elevators were not considered safe for people; if the cable broke, they would plummet to the bottom of the elevator shaft. Then in 1853, an American inventor named Elisha Graves Otis developed a safety device that kept elevators from falling if a cable should break. This ne w development had an enormous impact on public confidence. And later in the century, the switch to an electric motor made the elevator a practical solution to the problem of getting up and down tall buildings. [1] [5] The Great Fire - The Primary Reason The Great Fire of Chicago is named as one of the worst tragedies to hit the city and even more importantly it is remembered for the role it played in the rebuilding. The devastation occurred on October 8, 1871. The damage figures appalled the whole city. Nearly 300 persons had died while around 18,000 buildings were destroyed. This made about 100,000 people (one-third of the city) were homeless with a property valued at $200,000,000 (about a third of the valuation of the city) destroyed. The situation was looking very bleak. However histories telling the tales of dangers and grief shared and overcome gave heart to the people. And mysteriously in cases like these the worst of times can bring out the best in people anywhere. [1] [3] After the fire devastated Chicago in 1871 building regulations were changed to allow multistory structures. Reconstruction was started almost immediately. Development committees were formed and plans for rebuilding were made even before the fire was out. [1] [3] (Source: http://memory.loc.gov/ndlpcoop/ichicdn/n0084/n008404.jpg) By October 1872, new buildings worth nearly $50 million had been erected. Between 1872 and 1879 more than ten thousand construction permits were issued. Between 1871 and 1891 some $316,220,000 was poured into the construction of new buildings. Chicago, instead to recovering slowly from the tragedy, started to experience explosive growth, and it

Nevada Policy Scenarios Essay Example for Free

Nevada Policy Scenarios Essay In light of population growth, Nevada continues to seek new resources for water consumption. Options include working with farmers and states such as California, Arizona, Idaho, and even the Country of Mexico. There are also various Lake Mead projects that could supply the needed water, as well as conservation projects within the state of Nevada. Dry winters have left several western states in a drought including Nevada. So Congress passed the Act of July 26, 1866. This act was the foundation of subsequent western water law because it recognized the common law practices that American settlers in the new territories had already put in place. The law is as follows: By priority of possession rights to use water of mining,agriculture,manufacturing, or other purposes, have vested and accrued, and the same are recognized and acknowledged by the local customs, laws and decisions of courts, the possessors and owners of such vested rights shall be maintained and protected in the same; and the right of way for the construction of ditches and canals for the purposes herein specified is acknowledged and confirmed; but whenever any person in the construction is injured or damages should be liable to the party. However the agency’s policies have created economic distortions and environmental damage. (Edwards, 2009) (Bowers, 2005) Works Cited Bowers, M. W. (2005). The Sagegrush State. http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/interior/cutting-bureau-reclamation. (2009). Exploitation of Nevada Resources There are many resources in Nevada that people over use. For example, water, solar, and mining. Here are some reasons why and how we over use them. Water is a very important resource that is over used all over the world. We exploit this resource by washing our car to often or watering our garden daily. Why does our car always need to be sparkly clean or do we really need to water our garden every day. We may not realize how often we use water, but we all need to be a little more responsible when using the water, we need to think of our future and make the water last. Second, a very important resource is our solar and solar panels. So many of us leave our lights on when we are not even using the lights. If Americans would use solar energy correctly than Nevada would have the possibility to run low on it. Another way we all use solar energy is by leaving our plugs in at all times when it is unnecessary and we do not even need the plugs in the circuit. This waste energy and money. So be smart on how you use solar power. Finally, mining is Avery important part of our life. Without mining we would not have many metals that we use for technology. We need to be responsible with our mining because of the environmental impact on our land. A highly example that is happening today is the Telsa battery factory that is being built in Reno. They are going to mine the lithium from Nevada. Hopefully it will be mined responsibility and not with economic thoughts in mind only. (Michael W. Bowers, chapter 11) Alternative Sources of Energy in Nevada Alternative energy encompasses all things that do not use fossil fuels. Alternative energy sources are widely available and environmental friendly. They cause little or no pollution. Solar energy is one of the alternative energy sources that are used most widely across the world. There are two kinds of solar energy. Active solar energy and passive solar energy. Active solar energy uses electrical technology and mechanical technology. Passive solar energy uses duration and the sun’s rays. Wind energy uses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines or community with income windmills. The rotation of the wind turbine blades is converted to  electricity by means of an electrical generator. Wind Power produces no pollution. Hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of damned water driving a water turbine and generator. Gases, oil, and fossil fuels can be replaced by feces and urine. Feces contain methane, a colorless, odorless gas that could be used in the same way as natural gas. Now, let’s not forget the urine. Scientists are looking for a way to make the world’s first urine powered fuel cells. It would be a viable way for astronauts or military personnel to produce power on the go. Those are just a few ways people could use alternative energy. Using alternative energy is simple and easy. It does not coat extra money, it saves money and energy. This is just a few easy and cheap ways to save money and use alternative energy. (http://www.altenergy.org, 2013) Works Cited (2013). Retrieved from http://www.altenergy.org. Allied Nevada. (2013). http://www.alliednevada,com/properties/hycroft-mine-exploration. Bowers, M. W. (2005). The Sagegrush State. http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/interior/cutting-bureau-reclamation. (2009). NGE. (2014). http://www.nevadaexploration.com/. Past and Present Gaming As the casino industry brings in the community with income and tourism, there are more and more countries legalizing and liberalizing this industry. However, the expansion of the casino industry depends on the ability to grant credit to guest. In Nevada, the casino credit accounts for more than fifty percent of the revenue generated by games in the states larger casinos. (Auguilera, Rubinstein, and Reid, 2000) Steve Wynn Resort did not start to conduct the Wynn Resort until the law allows casinos to grant credit to patrons in 2004. It is obvious that the ability to grant credit is important for the profitability to casinos. However, without proper regulation, it is harmless to society to granny credit for gaming (Eadington, 1987.) Nevada is not an exception. With a long history of operating the casino industry, it was until 983 that the Nevada legislature erased the century of court decisions holding that gaming debts are  unenforceable. However, casinos still have to do background checks strictly before granting credit to patrons. Although the two jurisdictions have put much emphasis on controlling the credit extension activity. In the United States, Nevada, the gaming industry is more mature so that credit extension to patron is more strictly regulated by Nevada Gaming Control Board. Even though Nevada had a long history of developing the gaming, it was until 1983 that casino credit extension is allowed. Later in 1991, it was amended that â€Å"A credit instrument accepted on or after June 1, 1983 and the debt that the credit instrument represents are valid and may be enforced by legal process.†(Citation law 79) We have learned that casino industry is not the common industry that the operators can pursue for profit maximization. This industry creates job opportunities and revenue to the community and government yet not without any side effect. Besides the legal framework, in order to minimize the social cost from casino credit, in my opinion, the jurisdiction needs to develop sound and safe banking system before legalizing casino credit activities. On the other hand, in Nevada, the casino industry has reached its maturity. In conclusion gambling was re-legalized in 1931 as gaming expanded in the 1960’s, the casino industry remained geographically isolated in the state of Nevada. Nevada has potentially grown where visitors spend over 25 billion on gaming monthly, this does not include shopping food, etc. Without gaming the unemployment rate would be outrageous. All these casinos bring so many jobs, and so many people around the world will continue to come join the fun in Las Vegas at least once before they die. (http://www.americangaming.org/newsroom/specches-testimony/gaming-industry-past-present-future, 2014) Works Cited (2013). Retrieved from http://www.altenergy.org. Allied Nevada. (2013). http://www.alliednevada,com/properties/hycroft-mine-exploration. Bowers, M. W. (2005). The Sagegrush State. http://www.americangaming.org/newsroom/specches-testimony/gaming-industry-past-present-future. (2014). http://www.downsizinggovernment.org/interior/cutting-bureau-reclamation. (2009). NGE. (2014). http://www.nevadaexploration.com/.

Green Roofs Advantages and Disadvantages

Green Roofs Advantages and Disadvantages Introduction A Green roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with live vegetation. The vegetation is usually planted over a waterproof material. The green roof does not refer to the rooftops that are merely colored green. Green roofs may also include additional layers of root barriers and irrigation systems. In the case where plants are grown in pots and then placed in roof tops, these are not considered to be true green roofs. Roof top ponds are another form of green roof and are used to treat grey water (Little, par. 1). Grey water is any water that has been used in the home for the purposes of washing except water from toilets. Water from laundry, sinks and showers is all referred to as grey water. This water usually goes to waste but it may be reused for other purposes, especially irrigation. Grey water may therefore be run to roof gardens. Green roofs are also referred to as roof gardens and eco-roofs. Little says that roof gardens serve several purposes for a bu ilding such as absorbing rainwater, providing insulation for the building, creating habitat for wildlife, and also lowering urban temperatures thus lowering the heat island effect (Little, par. 1). There are two types of green roofs: intensive green roofs and extensive green roofs. Intensive green roofs are thicker and can support a wider variety of plants. They are heavier and require a lot of maintenance. They are made in such a way that they are accessible. The other type of green roofs is called extensive green roofs. These types of green roofs are covered by lighter vegetation and are easier to maintain than the intensive green roofs. They are mainly developed for aesthetic purposes, but also have various advantages to the environment. Green roofs can also be used to refer to the types of roofs that can use some form of green technology such as cool roof with photovoltaic modules. Photovoltaic modules are interconnected assembly of solar cells. The main purpose of the solar panel is to convert the solar energy into electricity. Environmental advantages of green roofs Population growth in the world today is happening at a very rapid rate. Many cities in the world are rapidly becoming highly urbanized with the construction of buildings and structures in close contact with each other. Increased construction of concrete buildings has led to the loss of green cover thereby creating a lot of environmental issues such as urban heat island effect. This has generated a substantial increase in air temperature in urban areas. The energy consumption has increased as an outcome of the heat island effect. Plants and vegetations play a very vital role in trapping dirt and dust particles in the air. Plants also utilize carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis and generate oxygen and glucose molecules during the day. This helps in reduction of carbon dioxide in the air as well as increasing the amount of oxygen in the air. In the process of urban development, trees are cut down at a very high rate. This leads to lowering of the air quality as levels of car bon dioxide will increase and oxygen levels decrease. According to Dowdey (para 3), places where there are no rooftop gardens, rainwater flows very fast from the buildings roofs into the sewer and in cases where the sewer cannot cope with the amount of water flowing from the roof tops, floods occur .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main cause of island heat effect in the urban areas is the absorption and retention of solar heat in buildings and other concrete structures resulting in the air temperature in such areas becoming warmer than in the rural areas. Increase in temperature means that the air conditioning load of these buildings will have to be increased. This means that more energy will be needed by the conditioners which will in return release more warm exhaust air into the outdoor thus aggravating the urban heat island effect. Roof gardens have been shown to lower the surface temperature and the air temperature greatly. Little states that the main reason why green roofs lower these temperatures is because, they cover the heat absorbing surfaces of the roof tops as well as the evapotranspiration cooling effects of the plants. Improving Air quality Roof vegetation improves the air quality by acting as a filter to trap air borne dust particles. A roof that has got a high temperature tends to create a thermal draft attracting dust particles from the streets. The green roofs have been found to moderate the thermal draft thus reducing the temperature difference between the roof tops and the streets. Green roofs also help to reduce the formation of smog. Smog is very sensitive to high temperatures and the fact is the higher the temperature, the higher the concentration of smog. According to Dowdey, plants through the process of photosynthesis absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere thus improving the air quality (Dowdey, par. 4). Improving water quality The green roof helps to filter out most of the heavy metals and nutrients present in rainwater. This is very beneficial in urban areas where precipitation is collected for domestic usage. Reduction of storm water Roof gardens retain most of rainwater on the roof through the various layers and significantly reduce the peak discharge flow rate into the storm water drainage system. This helps to reduce the risk of flash flooding. Energy conservation When surfaces absorb a lot of solar heat, urban heat island is the resulting effect. This in turn causes a substantial increase in the atmospheric temperature within the urban centers. This will in turn lead to a lot of energy consumption for cooling loads. Roof gardens help to absorb a lot of solar heat that would otherwise increase the atmospheric temperature. Cooling loads will therefore not be required to such a great extent and hence reduction in energy consumption will be the beneficial outcome. Green roofs also help in reducing heat loss and energy consumption in winter conditions (Kuhn, p 5). The green space Green spaces are very beneficial to people living and working in the urban centers. These spaces help in supporting biodiversity, softening the buildings environment, and aiding peoples mental and physical health. Green roofs improve the value of the green space by providing accessible green space. Green roofs are very appealing to those who look at them. Some green roofs can be designed for people to enjoy (Dowdey, par. 7). Cost benefit If 50% of the roofs in Tokyo were covered with roof gardens, a study showed that air temperature could be reduced from between 0.11 °c to 0.84 °c. Translation of these figures into real dollar value estimated that about $1.6 million per day in electricity bill could be achieved as energy savings. Kuhn (p 6) states that about 15% of annual energy saving can be achieved with roof gardens. Cooling loads can be drastically reduced up to 80% resulting in downsizing of air conditioning systems which would greatly improve savings in capital investments. A reduction of peak roof thermal transfer value of up to 80% make the roof tops a viable substitute for thermal insulation. Extension of roof life According to Dowdey, roof gardens protect the water proofing membrane as well as the roof top surfaces from the harmful effects of the ultra violet rays. Most of the water which would normally reach the roofing material causing dampness and rust is either taken by the plants or retained by the water proof membrane (para 8). Protection of the water proofing membrane and the roofing material extends their life to about four times their average life. The water proof material and the roofing material itself will not be tampered with in the process of regular replacement. This greatly improves the life expectancy of the roofing materials. Green roofs also play a very important role in protecting roofs from human traffic, heavy debris and dust particles. This means that the roofs are safe from being tampered with by people (Dowdey, par. 9). Disadvantages Proper planning for the installation of a green roof greatly reduces the disadvantages that may be accompanied with it. However, some types of green roofs do have more demanding structural standards than others. Some existing buildings cannot be retrofitted with certain kinds of green roofs because of the weight load of the substrates and the vegetation which exceed the permitted static loading, also referred to as the external force applied to a fixed position for a specific period of time. Depending on the type of the green roof, the cost of maintenance could be high. Some types of green roofs especially the intensive green roof require a very strong water proofing material to prevent water and roots from penetrating the water proof membrane. Installation of adequate water proofing materials and root barriers requires a considerable amount of money. The vegetation on the gardens requires special fertilizers which can sometimes be very costly (Kuhn, p 7). Conclusion Green roof are therefore very beneficial to human not only in terms of environmental protection but also in terms of economy. Their advantages are very many as compared to their disadvantages. The roles played by green gardens have a very great impact in our lives. Modification of the environment through lowering the island heat, managing storm water, reducing air and water pollution and creating a wildlife habitat are some of the green gardens environmental benefits. Green roofs have also been shown to increase the roof life as well as reduce energy costs. Bearing in mind the benefits of the roof gardens, the cost factor may be looked at the least in order for roof gardens to be widely adopted. Reference: Dowdey, Sarah. What is a Green Roof? , 2009. Retrieved on November 27, 2009 from http://science.howstuffworks.com/green-rooftop.htm Kuhn, Monica. Roof Gardening, 1996. Retrieved on November 27, 2009 from http://www.nea.gov.sg/cms/sei/PSS23slides.pdf Little, John. Green roof training, 2009. Retrieved on November 27, 2009 from http://www.livingroofs.org/livingpages/greenroofintro.html

Valuing a Website Before You Sell :: Sell Websites Buy Websites

Valuing a Website Before You Sell Reprinted with permission of VotanWeb.com There is probably no part of the buying process that worries a potential buyer more than overpaying for a website. While this is understandable (who wants to pay more than something is worth), it has more to do with misinformation and one's total approach to buying a website than it does to being an expert at appraisals. The truth is, value is completely subjective. After all, what one website may be worth to you is entirely different from what it is worth to the next person. While there are cases where people may not negotiate the best price possible for a good website you must know that no price is cheap enough if you buy the wrong website. In time, a good website will always justify the purchase price whereas a bad one may not ever allow you to recover financially. What is Value? In a nutshell, value must be measured by what you are getting in return for your money. You have to equate the purchase price against the benefits you will derive over the term in which you can realistically expect to own the website. As an example, you cannot simply measure the purchase price against the income that you will derive from a specific website. What about the daily enjoyments you will get from being your own boss? Or, the sense of accomplishment you will feel from building something? Maybe, it's the gratification that you will get from contributing to the lives of others (i.e. employees). Perhaps it will come from knowing that from the toils of your labor you have been able to provide certain things for your family that you could never even consider if you were working for somebody else. A good website will provide abundant rewards for you so in order for you to truly measure a website’s value you have to consider all of the benefits that you stand to gain. Also, you must factor in what you could never have achieved if you don't go into business for yourself. Think of it this way: the average person takes 30 years to payoff a mortgage and 4 years to pay off a car. Neither one of these will pay you a salary. While they both have their benefits, neither one comes close to what you can derive from a good website as far as overall benefits are concerned.

Robert J. Graves, MD and Graves Disease Essay -- Disease, Disorders

Graves’ disease was named after Robert J. Graves, MD, around the 1830’s. It is an autoimmune disease indicated by hyperthyroidism due to circulating autoantibodies, which is an antibody that attacks the person’s own body. The immune system attacks the thyroid gland, which causes it to produce too much thyroxine. Thyroxine is a hormone that helps control growth and also regulates metabolism in the body. While the thyroxine levels are high the patient’s metabolic rate increases, which can have an effect on their physical appearance as well as their frame of mind. Graves’ disease is the number one cause of hyperthyroidism in the U.S. There are many signs and symptoms of Graves’ disease. Symptoms of Graves’ disease include anxiety, irritability, insomnia, tiredness, irregular or accelerated heart rate, and sensitivity to heat. Sign of Graves’ disease are tremors in the hands and fingers, weight loss, brittle hair, goiter, menstrual cycle changes, and more frequent bowel movements. People with Graves’ disease also report having symptoms of Graves’ opthalmopathy, also known as thyroid eye disease. This can include bulging of the eyes, itchy eyes, red eyes, sensitivity to light, and swelling around the eyelids. More severe cases of opthalmopathy include corneal ulcers, double vision, blurred vision, and restricted eye movements. According to a journal published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, â€Å"Smoking greatly increases the risk for Graves’ opthalmopathy. Among patients with Graves’ opthalmopathy, smokers had more severe eye disease than nonsm okers. Smoking also appears to be one of the multiple factors inducing Graves’ disease in genetically predisposed individuals.† One more sign of Graves’ disease, though it is no... ...t it is not known what causes Graves’ disease to occur, the fact that there are so many treatment options is astonishing. Works Cited Christian Nordqvist. â€Å"What Is Graves’ Disease? What Causes Graves’ Disease?† Medical News Today. MediLexicon, Int., 6 Nov. 2009. Web 10 Mar. 2012. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/170005.php Sai-Ching Jim Yeung, MD, PhD, FACP. â€Å"Graves’ Disease† emedicine.medscape. 30 Sep. 2011. Web 10 Mar. 2012 http://www.emedicine.medscape.com/article/120619-overview#showall Dr. Asha Thomas. â€Å"Treatment of Graves’ Disease† Baltimore Sun. 19 Oct. 2009 10 Mar. 2012. http://www.baltimoresun.com/2009-10-19/news/0910180070_1_graves-disease-underactive-thyroid-thyroid-disease Mark F. Prummel, Wilmar M. Wiersinga. â€Å"Smoking and Risk of Graves’ Disease† The Journal of the American Medical Association. 1993 10 Mar. 2012

Myth vs. Reality

The Holy Bible has been dubbed as the all-time bestseller and most widely read book, with 2 billion printed copies around the world. It is composed of a collection of ancient manuscripts that served as basis for some of the world’s religions. The Old Testament (OT) of the Bible has twenty-four books written in Hebrew (except for a few passages in Aramaic) and is often called the Masoretic text. At the time of Reformation, the Hebrew books were rearranged and some were divided and so became thirty-nine in all. Roman Catholics, like Protestants, divide the Bible into an Old and a New Testament.The Roman Catholic Old Testament (OT) contains 46 books (most of them from the Hebrew Bible). Some are called canonical or authoritative; others deuterocanonical, secondary, but nonetheless authoritative. Protestants term the deuterocanonical books â€Å"The Apocrypha† and consider them to be outside the Canon of Scripture. For its Old Testament, Catholics follow the list of books i ncluded in the Septuagint, a Greek version that was the source of the Latin Vulgate translation. The following chart lists the agreements and differences between the order and content of the books of the Hebrew Scripture among Jews, Catholics, and Protestants.Some Eastern Orthodox communities include 1 Esdras, the Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151, and 3 Maccabees as part of their Old Testament canon. Catholics and Protestants are in virtual agreement on the 27 books of the New Testament (Flinn, 2007). No doubt, the Holy Bible is the foundation many religious doctrines. In fact, the Bible is constantly studied to provide clerics not just with the basis of his doctrine but also with an infinite repertoire of examples which served to illustrate their positions. Since the Bible contains both historical and literary texts, many people have their own interpretation of what they read in the Bible.Not to mention, the Bible has been translated many times from Hebrew and Aramaic to Latin to pres ent-day languages. In view of the discrepancies in interpretation and translation, the veracity of what has been written is constantly debated by many religious pundits. Are words written in the Bible truth or is just a collection of ancient myths? How can people detect truth in the Bible? In this paper, we will try to delve deep into the veracity and authority of the Bible as a factual source of historical and religious events. Baring the Truth in the BibleIn an article, Bob George (2005) proclaimed that the Bible is the â€Å"only source of truth about Jesus Christ and God†. He argued that Christianity is rooted in historical truth because the Bible presents objective, concrete facts—not fanciful tales or mythical legends. George (2005) proved that persons, places, and times has factual basis. For example, he said that when Caesar Augustus â€Å"was governor of Syria† (Luke 2:2) he ordered a census of the empire, â€Å"so Joseph also went up from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to Bethlehem† (Luke 2:4).John the Baptist, the forerunner of Christ, began his ministry â€Å"in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar† (Luke 3:1). All these events can be traced back with historical data available. Trembath (1987) agreed by citing theologian John Warwick Montgomery as he presented a â€Å"deductivist historiography according to which the truth of the Bible can be inferred from the historical accuracy of the gospel authors in recording the life of Jesus†. Another theologian Edward John Carnell understood that the inspiration of Bible is what accounts for its â€Å"systematic consistency† of the Bible.For Carnell, the truth of the Bible rests on the fact that it is God's rendition of both logic and history (Trembath 1987, p. 9). The Bible is a miscellany of genres: story, history, law, prophecy, song, poetry, and letters, making up a sacred ‘encyclopedia’ which has for centuries been a prime source of reading throughout the world. The different genres of the Bible tended to make it into a historical, human document whose truths might be relative rather than absolute. This is why some enlightened scholars began to interpret biblical language as symbol or allegory.They assumed that although the literal meaning of biblical stories might be rooted in historical context, these stories nevertheless conveyed deeper universal truths. However, biblical inspiration has sometimes been misunderstood as simply synonymous with ‘inerrancy’ or immunity from error—a view that creates impossible difficulties for those who cherish the Bible. One should prefer to discuss truth rather than immunity from error and, even more importantly, appreciate that truth is a result or consequence of inspiration.Despite a mechanical view of inspiration that highlighted the role of the Holy Spirit as â€Å"principal author† and hardly allowed for the sacred writers being genuine human authors. This is why, Pope Leo XIII in his 1893 encyclical Providentissimus Deus clarified the distinction between biblical inspiration and truth: the Bible is inspired, and therefore it is true (O’Collins & Farrugia 2005, p. 111). Defending Inconsistencies It cannot be denied that errors and inconsistencies can be found in the Bible. Like for instance, the account of the world’s creation being completed in a week (Gen.1: 1-2; 3) looks incompatible with the findings of cosmology and the theory of evolution. The Psalms and other OT books reflect in places the view that the earth is a flat disc and the sky above is a solid vault supported by columns at the ends of the earth. Add too the fact the Bible gives us conflicting accounts of the same episode. How did the Israelites elude their Egyptian pursuers? In describing the escape through the Red Sea, Exodus 14-15 offers three versions. Moses stretched out his hand and — as in the Cecil B. de Mille mo vie depicted — the waters piled up like walls to let the Israelites pass through.Then the waters flooded back over the Egyptians (Exod. 14: 16, 21, 22, 27, 28). In a second version, an east wind proved decisive. It dried up the sea for the Israelites, while the Egyptian chariots got stuck. Then God stopped the Egyptians with a glance and threw them into the sea (Exod. 14: 21, 25-6). Finally, an angel of the Lord and the column of cloud no longer went in front of the Israelites, but behind them. As a result the pursuing Egyptians could no longer see their quarry, who thus happily escaped (Exod. 14: 19-20). Then who killed Goliath—David or Elhanan (1 Sam.17; 2 Sam. 21: 19)? Did the site of the Jerusalem Temple cost David 50 shekels of silver or 600 shekels of gold (2 Sam. 24: 24; 1 Chr. 21: 25)? In short, factual inconsistencies and errors of a historical, geographical, and scientific nature turn up frequently in the scriptures. Faced with such evident factual, moral, an d religious errors, O’Collins and Farrugia (2005) explained the biblical truth in recalling three interconnected points: the intentions of the sacred authors, their presuppositions, and their modes of expression.Thus, the authors of the opening chapters of Genesis could be defended. They intended to teach a number of religious truths about the power and goodness of the Creator God, about the sinfulness of human beings, and so forth; they did not intend to teach some doctrine of cosmogony and cosmology. They simply did not aim to describe coherently and in â€Å"scientific† detail the origins of the universe, our earth, and the human race. In recalling the second coming of Jesus, Paul did not intend to communicate a timetable of its arrival but to encourage a full and urgent commitment to Christian life.In sum, it is unfair to accuse biblical or any other writers of falling into error by ignoring the difference between the points they really wished to communicate and th ose that lay outside any such intentions. Second, O’Collins and Farrugia (2005) justified that some biblical authors show that they shared with their contemporaries certain false notions about cosmology and astronomy. But, their acceptance of a flat earth, for instance, remained at the level of their presuppositions; it was not the theme of their direct teaching.The Bible was not artificially protected against geographical, cosmological, and astronomical errors to be found in the presuppositions of the sacred authors. Similarly the view that genuine human life ends at death formed a presupposition for the drama of Job and not the direct teaching of that book. At a time when death was believed to end all, how could an innocent person interpret and cope with massive suffering? Job did not debate with his friends whether or not there is life after death, but whether undeserved suffering can be reconciled with the existence of an all-good and all-powerful God.Third, O’Coll ins and Farrugia (2005) cited Pope Pius XII’s1943 encyclical letter that pointed out how alleged errors are often simply no more than legitimate modes of expression used by biblical writers: In many cases in which the sacred authors are accused of some historical inaccuracy or some inexact recording of certain events, on examination it turns out to be nothing else than those customary forms of expression or narrative style which were current among people of that time, and were in fact quite legitimately and commonly used (O’Collins and Farrugia 2005, p.113). Conclusion Bishop J. W. Colenso wrote that â€Å"he did not see any conflict between divine revelation and human reason, and the Bible had to be approached scientifically and logically†. Colenso assumed that â€Å"scientific reasoning is privileged, not in opposition to God’s revelation but as itself a gift of God†. Thus, it depends on the â€Å"reader of the Bible is encouraged to employ what ever resources are available — mathematical skills, history, philosophy and comparative religious texts, in the firm belief that truth is one and belongs to God† (Sugirtharajah 2001, p.144). In detecting the truth in the Bible, we should take into consideration context in which biblical language had been spoken. It was recognized that the meaning of words or stories might depend on the broader cultural environment in which a given text had been produced. Furthermore, it was supposed that meanings might have been lost or blurred in the course of history as cultures changed to make them less apparent. Finally, we should all remember that truth is subjective.When semantic, systemic, logical or empirical truths come into conflict, theorists urge that we believe that truth as such has no cognitive value—that we literally should not care whether our beliefs are true or false, but only whether they enable us to achieve more substantive goals such as happiness and well-b eing. Thus, we should believe that the Bible speaks the truth because it can serve as our moral and spiritual guide to attain a spiritually sound and happy life. References Flinn, F. K. (2007). The Bible. Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Facts On File, Inc.George, B. (2005). Conservative Christianity Is a Biblical Relationship with God. In M. E. Williams (Ed. ), Opposing Viewpoints: Constructing a Life Philosophy. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. O’Collins, G. & Farrugia, M. (2003). Catholicism – The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sugirtharajah, R. S. (2001). Bible in the Third World : Precolonial, Colonial, Postcolonial Encounters. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press. Trembath, K. R. (1987). Evangelical Theories of Biblical Inspiration : A Review and Proposal. Cary, NC: Oxford University Press, Inc.